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Mastung 

Mastung used to be a sub-division of Kalat district. Due to administrative reasons, it was separated from Kalat in July 1991 and was given the status of a district. From 18 February 1992 Mastung has functioned as a separate district. The district derives its name from the locality Mastung. According to locals "Mastung" is made up of two words Mas and Tung. In Brahvi language Mas means mountain and Tung means hole. Mastung is situated at the bottom of Lack pass. When someone crosses the Lack Pass from Quetta, before entering into Mastung city, he feels that he is passing through a hole.

Mastung was given another name (Khudabad) by Ahmedzai Khan but it was never popular. The district Mastung consists of two sub-divisions: Mastung and Kardgap. There are four tehsils: Mastung, Dasht, Kardgap and Khad Kucha. The district is divided into 13 Patwar circles and 280 Muzas.

Little is known of the history of Mastung up to 977 AD, i.e. before the conquest of Balochistan by Mahmood Ghaznavi. History reveals that Muslim rulers ruled Balochistan from about the 7^th century onward. It is likely that the Sewas, who belonged to the Rai-dynasty of Sindh, were ruling the Kalat State before the 7^th century.

It is most likely that the Sewas may have obtained the possession of Kalat after the fall of Sultan Feroz Dhoh of Delhi. The Sewas were Hindus who were deprived of power in Sindh about the middle of the 15^th century.

Between 1530 and 1545 Mastung was part of Kandahar Sarkar which at that time was under the rule of Kamran Khan. It was in the summer of 1543 that Emperor Humayyun on his retreat from India came to Mastung via Sibi. He camped in a garden close to Mastung (Pringabad). Humayyun had to leave his son Akbar, who was only one year old, in Pringabad and escaped with his party via Nushki to Garmsel and Herat (Afghanistan). On Humayyun’s return, two years later, Kandahar again came under his rule. Between 1556-1595 Kandahar and its dependencies remained under the Safavid dynasty and later it was again acquired by the Mughals. During the period of Mughal emperor Akbar, Mastung was a part of the eastern division of Kandahar Sarkar.

The Ain-I-Akbari (Akbari Law) mentions Mastung as having a mud fort and paying an annual revenue of 10 Tumans and 8,000 Dinars in money and 470 Kharwars in grain, and as furnishing a contingent of 100 horses and 500 foot.

The decay of the Mughal power coincides with the rise of the Brahuis to a position of near independence. This state of affairs remained for twelve generations till the rise of Mir Ahmed who ruled from 1695 to 1696. At this time, Mastung was the capital of Kalat state and was under Nadir Shah who used to appoint the Khan. In 1736, he appointed Mir Muhabat as Khan of Kalat. Ahmed Shah Abdali was the successor of Nadir Shah.

Ahmed Shah Abdali despatched a force against Mastung in 1749. Mir Muhabat was defeated. Mir Nasir Khan was nominated in his place. From that time till 1839 Khanship remained in the younger branch of the family. Nasir Khan ruled for 44 years from 1750 to 1794 and is the historical hero of the Brahuis. He is known as "The Great". During his reign he rendered much assistance to Ahmed Shah in his numerous expeditions to Persia and India.

Ahmed Shah bestowed Quetta, Mastung, Harrand and Dajal on Nasir Khan "The Great". In 1839 when Mehrab Khan was Khan of Kalat, the British army attacked and took Kalat. In 1854 a first treaty was signed between the Khan and the British. The British received some concessions, including permission to build railway and telegraph lines through Kalat territory. This situation prevailed till the partition of the sub-continent.

The Khan of Kalat announced to merge his state with Pakistan and in 1958 Kalat state was incorporated in Pakistan. Since then, Kalat and Mastung are parts of Balochistan.

The geographical area of district Mastung is 589,600 ha. The Reported area is 436,586 ha, which is almost 3/4^th of the total geographical area; 38.28% of the total area is not available for cultivation.

The potential area available for cultivation is 247,466 ha, of which nearly 45,600 ha are arable land and 165,466 ha is cultivable waste. Thus more than 165 thousand ha area has potential for future agricultural development, but due to scarcity of water, the potential has not yet been exploited. The available data shows that the district is rich in forest resources. This resource could be further developed.

The district is mountainous and includes barren lands. There is acute shortage of water in the district and wherever water is available people use it for high value cash crops like fruit and vegetables. 

Mastung district is situated 50 kilometer south of Quetta. It lies between north latitudes 26 56’ to 28 57’ and east longitudes 65 52’ to 66 35’, the greatest length from north to south is 58 kilometers and the greatest width from east to west is about 82 km. Its total area is 5,896 square kilometers.

Mastung borders to Quetta in the north, Kalat in the south, the Bolan pass in the east and Chaghi in the west. In general the district is mountainous consisting of a series of parallel mountain ranges north and east, which lie at an elevation from 1500 to 2000 meters above sea level.

The climate is characterised by dry hot summers and mild to cool winters. The variation between day and night temperature is large in almost all parts of the district. Rainfall is scanty. During winter snow falls in the valleys of Mastung and Dasht. The Lack pass mountains are also covered with snow. The monthly temperature, recorded at Kalat, can be observed from the table. 

	J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D	Total
Mean Rainfall in mm	55.0	48.0	37.0	15.0	6.0	3.0	31.0	14.0	2.0	0.0	3.0	19.0	233.0
Max. Temp. in C	9.4	12.1	16.3	21.7	27.2	31.3	32.3	31.4	28.4	22.9	17.4	12.8	21.9
Min. Temp. in C	-3.8	-1.9	1.9	6.2	10.3	13.3	16.4	14.8	9.4	3.7	-0.9	-3.6	5.5

Most of the rainfall is recorded in winter, during which snow falls in the valleys of Mastung and Dasht. The summer is dry with a hot dry summer wind blowing from Iran.

The climate of the district is subject to considerable variations. Winter lasts from September to March. From April to August the weather is pleasant. The maximum and minimum temperature is 28.4 C and 3.6 C respectively.

The soil of the district exists of limestone and clay. The soils of the area are not delineated separately in the reconnaissance survey of the Kalat area prepared by the Soil Survey of Pakistan, but would appear to belong to the nearby Maslakh series. The soils are moderately deep, strongly calcareous, gravely clay loam. There is no evidence of salinity problems and the soil is considered very suitable for irrigated agriculture.

The major minerals found in Mastung district are coal and building stone. They are found in the Degri area near Quetta. From Degri area good quality of coal is extracted and supplied to various parts of the country, particularly to Punjab where it is used in the brick klins manufacture. Building stone is locally used for construction purposes.

In Mastung, especially on the slope of the Harboi range, the following trees are common: Juniper (Junipers Excelsa), Khanjal (Pistacia Cabalica), mash monk (Prunus Eburnea) and archin (Pranusamyydalug). Among herbs the wild onion, and among flowers, wild briar and tulips are found in the area. Zira (cumin seed), locally known as siza, grows in the northern part of the area.

The major sources of energy for light are electricity and kerosene oil, while the major sources of energy for fuel purposes are wood, electricity, kerosene oil, animal dung, cylinder gas and dry bushes.

Piped gas was introduced in 1996, but only in the urban areas of Mastung and Pringabad. Over the last decade the use of electricity for agricultural purposes has increased very rapidly. The growing number of tube wells are an indicator.

Though at present Mastung district is not suffering from environmental pollution so much, the problems related to the absence of proper drainage and sewerage systems and solid waste disposal will have more serious adverse effects on the environment in future.

The use of bushes as fuel damages soil fertility and has increased the problems associated with sand dunes in district Mastung.

The major environmental problems are: depletion of aquifer due to excessive use of groundwater through tubewells (stimulated by a flat electricity rate), degradation of rangelands, soil erosion, deforestation and vanishing of wildlife.

The district, due to its fertile land, holds bright potential for agriculture/horticulture development.The resources of the district, particularly minerals and land, are under-utilised. Being adjacent to Quetta and the RCD road, Mastung has much potential for development. The use of modern energy has increased, however, in rural areas animal dung and wood bushes are still used for fuel purposes. This has given rise to problems like soil erosion and deforestation.

According to estimates prepared by the National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) for 1995, the population in district Mastung is 200,000 and it is growing at a rate of 3% per annum.

Major abnormalities in the estimates of population have been witnessed and certain reasons have been put forward to explain this situation.

Firstly, for political and economic benefit, e.g. for the allocation of development funds, vested interest groups exaggerate their number. Secondly, there is a tendency among the rural population to conceal the number of females. thirdly, there is no proper registration system to register the births and deaths, particularly in rural areas, although Municipal Committees and Union Councils keep such records. However, the majority of the rural population has not yet realised the importance of registration.

It should also be kept in mind that there has been no population census since 1981. At that time Kalat and Mastung together were one administrative unit. Therefore, changes in population size, age structure and distribution separately for Mastung are not available.

The population growth pattern in Mastung district has rapidly changed during the last 23 years. In 1972, the reported population of Mastung was 74,887 which grew to 132,044 in 1981. The average annual growth rate during 1972-1981 was 6.9% for Mastung and 7.3% for Mastung including Kalat. The estimated population in 1995 was 200,000. During the last 25 years the population has increased by 167%. Now the population is two and a half times more than in 1972. This clearly indicates that birth rate has remained very high. Comparing the percentage population growth of Mastung district, Balochistan and Pakistan during 1981-1995 (based on NIPS) we note that it was 3.0%, 3.9% and 2.9% respectively. It appears that the population growth was higher than the national average, but substantially lower than the provincial average.

According to the 1981 census the male/female ratio was 103 males for 100 females (1.03). The number of males was 66,835 against 65,209 females.

Infants (below 1 year) were 3.06%. The adult population (i.e. 18 years and above) was 48.95% and the population eligible to vote (i.e. 21 years and above) was 41.36%. The number of women of child bearing age (15 – 49 years) was 59.62% of the female population. The dependent population was about 50% and adult population was about 49%.

The census of 1981 defines "a household as a person or a group of persons living together and eating from the same kitchen and using the same budget, whether or not related to each other". According to this source, household size in Mastung district in 1981 was 7 persons. Due to shortage of houses and high rents people are faced to live under joint family system both in rural as well s in urban areas. However, vast improvements in the living conditions have been observed in Mastung district. This may be due to the demonstration effect and the effects of mass media.

The dependent population includes children below 15 years and people above 65 years. The dependency ratio in district Mastung is very high according to the 1981 census: 24.59% males and 26.93% females of the total population were dependent population (32,467 males, 35,557 females). The female dependency ratio was higher than the male one. Though not included in the official statistics, it should not be forgotten that Brahvi women irrespective of their age are dependent.

In 1981, the total population of the district was 132,000, of which 87.51% lived in rural areas. Of the rural population 49.1% was female. Only 12.49% of the total population resided in urban areas; 51.4% of them were females. To avert rural-urban migration, it is essential that rural life is made more attractive and the difference in rural and urban income should be narrowed down through government policies.

More than 4/5 of the population lives in rural areas. The population density in 1981 was 22.4 person per sq. km and estimated to have increased to 34 persons per sq. km in 1995. In Mastung there are 280 villages. They are small and lie scattered over the district. They normally range from 10 to 250 households.

Mastung is dominated by Brahuis. In the district 84.89% of the households are Brahui speaking and 7.35% speak Pashto. Other languages spoken are Urdu, Punjabi, Salachi, Hindko, Dehwari and Sindhi. Urdu is commonly spoken by all ethnic groups residing in the district.

9. Nature and Extent of Migration

Some of the tribal people annually migrate during winter with their families and small ruminants towards Kachhi (Bolan district), Jacobabad and Larkana. Some of the migrants own land in Kachhi, but the majority goes there to find pasture land for their flocks. Some go to find jobs. Migration to other countries is very limited. Migration starts in October and continues till November. The migrants return again to Mastung in March. A large number of people also go to Panjgur district at the time the date crop can be harvested there. Most migrants are men; women represent only 17.7% of all migrants.

According to the 1981 population census, the labour force (working and looking for work) constituted 28.5% of the total population. Male and female labour force participation rates were 55.8% and 0.8% respectively. The labour force participation rates for urban and rural areas were 22.5% and 28.5% respectively. The un-employment rate was 2.0–2.6% in urban areas and 1.8% in rural areas. The male and female unemployment rates were 1.6% and 19.2% respectively.

The major occupation group was "agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and mining which constituted 80.7% of the total labour force. Agriculture and mining related workers constituted 9.0% and labourer and sales workers constituted 2.5% of the labour force.

Other important economic activities were "community, social and personal services" and "mining and quarrying" which employed 4.9% and 4.8% respectively of the total working population. Thus the majority of labour is involved in agriculture and the smallest group is engaged in mining and quarrying.

According to the 1981 census, 85% of the housing units had 1 to 2 rooms, 14% had three rooms and 1% had four rooms or more. On average three people lived in one room. The percentage of the population having only one room was 36.8%. The percentage of households having access to piped water was 5.2%.

The proportion of owner occupied houses was 90% followed by 8% rent free houses and 2% rented houses (1981 census). After Mastung became a separate district, the demand for houses increased and rents have risen substantially.

Most of the houses in rural areas are constructed on traditional pattern.

Wood is the main source of energy used for cooking. It is used by 85% of the housing units. Five percent uses kerosene oil and a same proportion uses electricity for cooking purposes in the rural areas of the district.

Piped gas came available in Pringabad on 2 January 1996 and in Mastung town on 7 October 1996. According to the information provided by the Sui Gas Office, by February 1997, 200 gas connections had been provided in Mastung and 204 in Pringabad. The use of kerosene oil, wood and dung cake is also common in the sub-urban areas of Mastung. In the rural areas, 35% of the houses use electricity and 65% uses kerosene oil for lighting, while in urban areas 90% houses use electricity.

Despite rapid electrification and the supply of Sui gas to Mastung, the main sources of energy in the area still are wood and kerosene oil.

According to the 1981 Census Report, separate kitchen facilities were available to 78% of the households. Ten percent had no kitchen facility at all. Separate bathroom and latrine facility were available to 79% and 87% respectively of all housing units. Separate latrine facility with flush system was available to only one percent. In urban areas, 11% of all housing units had no latrine facility. During the last decade the construction of houses has increased, particularly when Mastung became a separate district. The newly constructed houses have all the basic facilities like a kitchen and a latrine.

According to 1981 census, piped water facility was available to only 5% of the households in the district. At least 50% of all housing units got drinking water from wells. Potable water was available to 41% housing units. Other sources of drinking water are springs. rivers and streams.

Most of the houses in Mastung district have dry latrines. Only one percent of the households have flush system facilities.

The population of the district has increased very rapidly.

Most of the houses are made of mud and clay bricks and have no basic facilities like kitchen, toilet etc. Sewerage systems do not exist in rural areas; even in towns the facility is only available to some extent. The rural population is deprived of all civic facilities.

Wood remains the major source of energy. Yet the use of wood has declined in urban areas and gas has replaced it. In urban areas, electricity has become the major source of energy for lighting. In rural areas most people depend on kerosine oil.

Women and children are responsible for the collection of wood and the fetching of water.

Major development issues with regard to demography and housing are lack of civic sense and social awareness, shortage of gender specific job opportunities and absence of vital statistics (population, labour force).

The society residing in Mastung can clearly be divided into three major groups i.e. Brahui, Khan and Dehwar. According to the 1981 census Brahui tribes are 85% of the total population. The sub-tribes of Brahui are Raisani, Shahwani, Banulzai, Mahammad Shahi, Sarpara, Kurd, Lehri, Lango and Dehwar. Every tribe is headed by a Nawab or Sardar. The classes within the tribe are headed by Sardars. The most influential tribe among the Brahui tribes are the Raisanis. Their chief is called the Head of the Sarawarn. Each sub-tribe of Brahui is further divided into classes. Shahwani and Mahammad Shahi are divided into 7 and 6 classes respectively. The principal occupation of the tribes residing in district Mastung is agriculture, some of them possess large flocks of sheep and goats.

The majority of the people has two meals a day, one in the morning and the other at sun set. However in urban areas some persons have breakfast, lunch and dinner, wheat is the staple food and is used in the form of thin chapatis. Meat, vegetable and lentils are used along with bread. In summer yoghurt and lassi are also popular.

The majority of the male population wears a Balochi cap and shalwar and kameez, both in winter and summer. Women also wear shalwar and k0ameez and a shawl over their heads.

The family is the basic unit in the sub-tribe organisation. In the district there are two types of family systems: the joint family system and the nuclear family system. Most people in rural areas live in a joint family system. In urban areas most people live in a nuclear family. The senior male member is the head of the family and he is the decision making authority. He supervises family affairs. Elders are highly respected and weight is given to their decisions.

The marriage customs in Mastung are the same as in Kalat and Khuzdar. Polygamy is common in the upper middle class. Sometimes polygamy is forced by custom, which requires that a brother of a deceased husband must marry his widow. Marriages are mostly arranged. Spouses are always selected by the parents. Marriages with near relatives are preferred.

Mastung is a tribal society. Tribal chiefs have much influence and a firm grasp on their tribe people. Community and tribal disputes are settled by tribal chiefs. In the family, men, particularly elder men, enjoy the power of decision making. Their decision is final and all family members must follow them.

Customs of co-operation exist at the time of death and marriage and at times of sowing and harvesting. On such occasions the people contribute in cash or kind according to their abilities and according to the relationship. Assistance to the bride’s parents at the time of a marriage is called "Bigar". The groom is assisted as well. People give him money and gifts to congratulate him and his parents at the time of Valima (marriage dinner)."Purs" is a kind of assistance given to the family of a deceased person. The main purpose is to share the expenditure of the death ceremony."Pory" is a form of assistance given to people who are sentenced by a Jirga and cannot pay the fine themselves. People also co-operate in community activities like cleaning the streets or installing community hand pumps.

The majority of the people living in the district are Muslim (Sunni). The people offer prayers at the stated times. They also keep the fast. Only few people pay Zakat. The Molvis are the most influential persons in the area. People pay them much respect and seek their guidance at the time of birth and death. The main festivals for Muslims are Eid-ul-Fitar, Eid-ul-Azha and Shaab-I-Barat. They are celebrated with great fervour. The Shrine of Hazrat Sheikh Muhammad Taqi Noorani is situated in Mastung city. People visit and offer "Fathia". The Hindu population of Mastung district celebrate Diwali and Holi. All the religious sects are very close and members co-operate with each other in their social and religious festivals.

There are two main systems of conflict resolution in the district, an "official" and an "un-official" one. The official system is carried out by the government, while the un-official one involves a Jirga. The government system functions through civil and session courts or the Qazi court in Mastung.

The Jirga system was introduced during the British period and was modified from time to time. It was abolished in 1991. Though nowadays it has no legal status, people still take their disputes to a Jirga to seek justice. The "Biradry" system (brotherhood) is another effective unofficial way of resolving disputes. People take their issues to the elders of their tribes or other notable persons in their communities The un-official system of conflict resolution plays a very important role in the settlement of disputes. It saves time as well as money.

All tribes keep arms. This is a part of their tradition and culture. It is also a sign of prestige and a warning to rival tribes. Whenever tribal chiefs move from one place to another they are escorted by a number of bodyguards armed with dangerous weapons like Kalashinkovs. Most of these weapons are held without license. The government does not properly check the registration of arms.

The monopoly of economic and social power lies with the men. At the local level, chiefs and tribal heads are always men. There is only one NGO in the district headed by a woman. The lives of the women of the district have not improved at all over the last decades. They carry a disproportional large part of the workload. Their duties are many. All activities within the house (cleaning, child rearing, washing of clothes, taking care of livestock) are the sole responsibility of women. They also work in the fields. They have no right to property. They get less to eat and less medical care. They have no status in the society.

Due to the agrarian nature of the district, children are much involved in agricultural activities of their families. However, only a few cases of child labour have been observed with children working in private enterprises like motor cycle repair shops, tailor shops, shoe-maker shops, motor garages, chinaki hotels, Tandur or blacksmith shops.

Mastung is a tribal society. The tribal chiefs have much influence in the area. Women are very much involved in domestic activities, but have no major role and social status in society. Their social status is determined by their husbands’ social status. Change can be brought through the development of educational and communicational facilities. Child labour is limited in the area. Sometimes, poor families send their children to work to supplement the income of the family. Most people in the district live in a joint family system. Marriages are arranged by the mutual parents. The tribal system is very deeply rooted. People still prefer traditional ways of resolving disputes to going to official courts, as it saves time and money and because it is more in line with tribal social and cultural values. Qazi courts are playing a significant role in the provision of timely and not so costly justice to the poor segments of the society.

Due to administrative reasons Mastung was separated from Kalat and made a new District in 1991. The district consists of one tehsil (Mastung) and three sub-tehsils: Kirdgab, Dasht and Khud Koocha. There are seven Union Councils, one District Council and one Municipal Committee.

In 1956, Mastung was declared an urban area and in 1960 a Town Committee was installed. Elections were held under the system of Basic Democracy in 1960. Four members were elected and two were nominated. With the passage of time the system of local government was reformed and local government institutions were reorganised in the form of first, second and third tiers. The first tier were the Union Committee, Union Council, Town Committees and Municipalities. The second tier were the Tehsil Councils and District Councils. The Divisional Council in which rural and urban areas were represented, is the third tier. This system was named Basic Democracy, because the role of local government was extended to the grassroots level. Later this construction was abandoned. At provincial level the Local Government Department came into existence. In 1974 the Mastung Town Committee was upgraded to Municipal Committee. The present local government system was introduced in 1979. In 1980 the Balochistan Local Government Ordinance (BLGO) came in force then, the rural areas of district Mastung were divided into seven Union Councils.

Mastung town has a Municipal Committee. The Committee has seventeen elected members. Two seats are allocated to women’ and one to a labourer’s representative. They are indirectly elected by the 17 elected members. There is one Chief Officer representing the government. He assists the chairman and members in the day to day affairs. An Assistant Director supervises the administrative staff.

In the rural areas, there are seven Union Councils, which all are represented in the District Council. The traditional decision making structure at village level used to involve an arbitration committee called Jirga, which members used to be nominated by the Political Agent and included Nawab, Sardar, Arbab, Takari and notables. The decisions made by the Jirga were honoured due to social pressure. However, there decisions would have to be endorsed by the Political Agent.

The Union Council is the basic unit of local government. The number of councillors in each Union Council varies from place to place. It depends on the size of population residing in the area. Union Councils cover a population ranging from 10,000 to 15,000. There are two seats reserved for women and one for a labourers representative. The other members are directly elected by the district population. There are seven Union Councils functioning in district Mastung; Soroaz, Sheikh Wasil, Kud Kucha, Kanak, Dasht, Kardgap and Splengi. The major function of the Union Council is to solve the problems of the people at the grassroots level. Because councillors have close relationship with the people, they can assist them in solving their problems. The Union Councils, due to absence of funds are not able to play their due role in the development process. The major constraint in their working is that they are unable to generate funds. They also do not get any grants from the government.

There is no Town Committee in district Mastung.

The district has one Municipal Committee for Mastung town. The town is divided into seventeen wards and from each ward one representative is elected for the Municipal Committee. Elections have been held in 1979, 1983, 1987 and 1992. The elected members are called councillors. The councillors elect the two women and the labourers representative. Thus the number of Councillors in Municipal Committee Mastung is 20. The major source of income of Municipal Committee is from octroi; other sources of income include taxes and rents. In 1996 total revenue was about Rs.30 Lakh. Currently, the Municipal Committee is facing financing problems. Its income is hardly sufficient for its non-development expenditure which includes the salaries of the Municipal Committee staff, office equipment, sanitation expenses and maintenance of two tractors for garbage collection.

The District Council consists of twelve councillors, out of which seven are elected from the Union Councils, two seats are reserved for women, two for labourers representatives and one for a farmers representative. They are elected by the elected councillors from the Union Councils. The District Council plays a very important role in the development of rural areas, particularly in the development and maintenance of infrastructure. The Mastung District Council has planned various development projects. The main sources of income of the District Council are Zila tax and grants from the provincial government. Currently, all District Councils have been suspended by the government.

The provincial government administration at district level is headed by the Deputy Commissioner. He is the Chief Executive of the District. He is assisted by Assistant Commissioners, Sub Divisional Magistrates, Tehsildar, Naib Tehsildars and others. Other functionaries at the district level include the Judicial Magistrate and Session Judge, who control the judicial organisation. The District Health Officer controls all health activities. The Superintendent of Police assists the Deputy Commissioner in the maintenance of law and order. The District Education Officer controls and supervises the educational institutions and the Extra Assistant Director of Agriculture implements the policies of the government relating to agriculture.

The Deputy Commissioner’s functions include maintenance of Law and Order and revenue collection. He is the Political Agent of the Government. He is also the chairman of the co-ordination committee for development at district level (since December 1996 District Councils and Municipal Committees are suspended). Sometimes the Deputy Commissioner is assigned a special task to monitor and report about the activities of some development project. Being the Chief Executive of the District, he is supposed to have a close relationship with the MPAs, MNAs and Senators. The provincial government plays a dominant role in the administration of the district. The role of the federal government is confined to communication activities.

Maintenance of law and order is carried out by the judiciary, police and levies, Frontier Corps and administrative institutions. Some years ago a Judicial Magistrate was appointed to supervise the judiciary work. As a result of separation of judiciary from executive powers, a Judicial Magistrate was appointed in the District. This was expected to result in quick and cheaper justice for the community. Under the Jirga system, the Deputy Commissioner had final authority to make decisions. People had to wait for years to settle their disputes and rivalries.

Police and levies are the first responsible to maintain law and order in the district. In "A" area the police controls the law and order situation and Deputy Superintendent of Police DSP, controls the police force. "A" area covers the urban area. Levies control the "B" area of the district, that mostly consists of rural areas. The police force consists of 70 and the levies force consists of 293 persons. The levies system was established during the British period to maintain law and order particularly in the tribal areas. Tribal chiefs provide the persons for the levies force and there is a quota for every tribe. The Deputy Commissioner is accountable for the functioning of the levy force, but delegates the day to day supervision to the Assistant Commissioner, Tehsildar and other staff of the district administration.

During 1996, only 53 FIR’s were registered in "A" area and 66 in "B" area.

Revenue collection is differently administered by the federal, provincial and local government. Every organisation collects specific tax levied by them, e.g. collection of water charges are the responsibility of those organisations who provide water. In district Mastung, the Municipal Committee and P.H.E.D both supply water and collect water charges from the users. Sanitation fee, octroi, property tax and business licence tax are imposed and collected by the Municipal Committee. Livestock cess, agriculture cess, land tax, property tax, vehicle registration tax and coal mining royalties are collected through the provincial government. Income tax and custom duty are collected by the federal government.

Mastung has always played an active role in the politics of Balochistan. BNM (Balochistan National Movement) Akhtar Mengal Group, JUI (F) (Jamiat Ulma-a-Islam Maulana Fazal-ur-Rahman Group), JWP (Jamhoori Watan Party), PPP (Pakistan Peoples Party) and PML-N (Muslim League Nawaz Group) are very active in the area. At the latest elections BNP (Balochistan National Party) won the seat of the National and the Provincial Assembly.

The parties have a student wing. BSO (Balochistan Students Organisation) JTI (Jamiat Tulba-i-Islam) are very popular and active in the educational sector. Small branches of labour unions do exist, but their role is insignificant due to their low strength. Women representation in political parties does not exist, due to social and tribal conventions. Their political role is limited to casting their votes.

In Mastung district, only six NGOs are registered under the registration ordinance 1961 in the Department of Social Welfare, Government of Balochistan. These NGOs are performing various activities under limited resources. They need guidance, technical training and training in skills to improve their services. Particularly youth organisations have much potential to carry out various activities for recreation, education and income generation.

Examples of NGOs active in the district are the Family Planning Association of Pakistan (FPAP) and the Society for Community Support for Primary Education in Balochistan, which provides primary education for girls.

Local government institutions promote development at grassroots level. They can play an important role in socio-political and economic development, provided they have institutional capacity to organise and mobilise local resources. The separation of the judiciary from the executive has decreased the workload of the administrative institutions. Hopefully now the crime rate will go down, which would have positive implications for the overall district administration. Tribal affiliation and religion are the major determinants of political behaviour in the district. The role of women in the political parties is marginal, due to social and cultural values.

6. Productive Sectors

 

The economy of Mastung district is multi-sectoral. Agriculture is the dominant and flourishing sector of the economy. Horticulture is the leading sub-sector within agriculture, mostly producing high valued fruits like apples, almonds, grapes and watermelons. Livestock is also a sector. It is a source of income and also meets nutritional requirements of the population residing in the district. Minerals are also an important economic sector producing coal, clay and limestone. A large number of persons are involved in this sector. By contrast the industrial base is poor. Some years ago there used to be a cement factory, but it has been closed down. Still, some cottage industries like carpet weaving and local embroidery exist. There is no specific government industrial policy for the district. Provincial policies are framed in the light of federal policies and these are mainly focused on the provision of physical infrastructure.

5.1 Agriculture / Horticulture

1. Introduction

There are two cropping seasons in Mastung district, Kharif and Rabi. Kharif crops are sown in summer and harvested in late summer or early winter. Rabi crops are sown in winter or during early summer. Important Rabi crops are wheat, barley, cumin, fodder and vegetables. Wheat is sown in irrigated as well as rain fed areas. More than 60 percent of the Rabi crops area was under wheat production in 1994-95. The major crops grown during Kharif are onion, fruit, fodder, vegetables, melon and potato. Most of the crops grown during Kharif crops are cash crops. Women and children are actively involved in agricultural activities at each stage of production, from sowing to harvesting. In Pashtoon areas the involvement of females and children in the agriculture sector is minimal. The demand for seasonal labour increases particularly at the time of sowing and harvesting of the crops. Seasonal labourers, male and female, are employed on daily wages. Female seasonal labourers are usually nomads and they are paid less than men.

It is unfortunate that the agricultural statistics of Balochistan 1994-95 do not provide data on reported area, current fallow, culturable waste, forest and areas not available for cultivation for district Mastung. However, from the Irrigation Department data on land use were obtained. These data are given in the table in paragraph 1.1. the table shows that only 74% of the total geographical area is reported (436,586 Ha), of which 211,066 Ha (35.8% of the total geographical area) is arable land. About 14% of the district is culturable waste which could be brought under cultivation given the necessary inputs are available.

Agricultural land in Mastung can be classified into irrigated and un-irrigated areas. Irrigated land has permanent sources of irrigation, like karezes, tube wells and springs. On irrigated land high valued crops are grown. The un-irrigated land of Khushkaba is rain fed. The area of un-irrigated land varies from year to year depending on the weather.

Cultivated area is under personal ownership, while pasture land and those lands which have not yet been brought under administrative records belong to the tribe residing in the area. It is unfortunate that separate data for Mastung district are not available. However, the Agricultural Census 1990, provides some information for Kalat district including present Mastung district. The total number of farms in the then Kalat district as 23,935. All farms were private farms. The total area under possession of these farms was 199,000 hectares. The cultivated area during the census year was 125,418 hectares, which was 63% of the total farm area. The average size of a farm area was 8.34 hectares. Average size of cultivated area was 5,26 hectares. Small farms up to 5.0 hectares constituted 55% of the total number of farms having 17% of the total farm area. Medium farms constituted 20% of the total number of farms and their total area was 34,601 hectares or 17% of the total farm area. The large farms were 5,895 in number and they were 25% of the total number of farms having 66% of the total area. Thus 75% of small and medium farms were having 34% of the farm areas and 25% of big farms had 66% of the farm area.

The process for generating Agricultural Statistics is as under. Before a specific crop is planted, a Field Assistant visits the area and estimates the area to be brought under a specific crop. The second visit is made when the crop is sown, to confirm the earlier estimates. The final visit is made when the crop is harvested. In the case of wheat, first, second and third visits are made in November, March, and July respectively. The Field Assistant sends his report to the statistical wing of the Agriculture Department. The Director General of Agriculture Department compiles the data and publishes it in the Agricultural Statistics of Balochistan.

It should be mentioned that the total area reflected in the table above (42.244 Ha) is only a part of the total arable land given in paragraph 1.1 (211.066 Ha). The table above probably givens the net sown area in 1994-95.

It is interesting to note that in the cropping pattern of Mastung district subsistence crops have been replaced by high valued cash crop. During the Rabi season, wheat occupies the major proportion of the irrigated as well as rain fed areas, followed by barley, cumin, fodder and vegetables. In the Kharif season the major proportion of land is taken by onion, followed by fruits, fodder, vegetables, melon and potato. Looking at the area during the Rabi and the Kharif crops, it is evident that the farmers mostly produce for the market. This shows that farmers have diversified their cropping pattern over the years from subsistence towards high valued cash crops.

Average yield of irrigated areas is much higher than rain fed areas. Total production is the combined effect of area and yield. The growth rate of average yields and total production of wheat, fruits and potato are given below.

Contrary to Pashtoon area, female and child labour involvement in the agriculture and horticulture sectors is significant. For seasonal labour male and female nomads are hired. Agriculture decisions are made by the male members of the family. Most of the agricultural work is done through mechanisation, i.e. tractors are used for ploughing and tube wells are used for watering the field. Therefore, the need for manual labour has reduced to a great extent. Productivity per unit of irrigated land is approximately double the productivity of rain fed land. Under the various types of irrigation (karezes, springs and wells) tube wells are preferred. Another main difference between cultivation on irrigated or rain fed land is that in the latter case the farmer cannot plan his production according to his wishes.

There are three types of tenancy contracts prevailing in the district. First, there is share tenancy, in which the owner of the land bears the cost of inputs and the production is divided according to a fixed standard for each crop. A second form is cash tenancy. This means that the owner of the land gives his land for one agricultural year against an agreed amount of money. The third form is the crop sharing system in which the landowner gives his land to the tenant and all production costs have to be borne by the tenant himself. In that case 1/5 of the production is given to the owner of the land. If the water used belongs to the owner of the land and if he also contributes in fertiliser, than the owner’s share will be bigger.

The nature of agricultural production is changing rapidly in the area with the advancement of technology: from bullock to tractor and from traditional manure to the use of chemical fertilisers, from subsistence to cash crops. Traditional agriculture is transferring into modern agriculture.

The major source of irrigation during the early 20th century was through karezes. Mastung was famous for its karezes (360 karezes in total). With the passage of time, many karezes were replaced by tube wells, because the maintenance of karezes was expensive. However, some karezes are still in use. The expenses for digging and maintenance are shared by its users, in proportion to the size of their lands. The work is carried out by a ‘Mirab’, who also distributes water. Nowadays, tube wells have become the major source of irrigation, because they allow control over time and quantity of water to be used. In other words, the utilisation of water resources has become more efficient and effective. The maintenance of privately owned tube wells is the responsibility of the owner, while the maintenance of government owned tube wells is the responsibility of the Irrigation Department. Karezes and springs are maintained through community participation.

Tube wells and open surface wells are mostly in private hands, with all rights vested in the owners. In the case of karezes and springs, rights of ownership are vested in the community. The costs of maintaining such channels are shared in proportion to the land holdings. Some tube wells are currently not operational, because they are located in areas where the water table has dropped, due to depletion or because of a mechanical breakdown.

The table given below shows the sources of irrigation and the percentage of total cultivated area:

Source of Irrigation in Mastung District

Irrigation Scheme		Irrigated Area (Ha)						% of cultivated area
	89-90		90-91	91-92	92-93	93-94	94-95	92-93	93-94	94-95
Canal	0		0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Wells	0		0	0	300	410	733	1.5904	1.783	2.00
Tube wells	0		0	0	18000	20088	29710	95.425	87.35	90.00
Karezes, Springs & other	0		0	0	563	2500	2260	2.9847	10.87	8.00
Total	0		0	0	18863	22998	33103	100	100	100

According to Agricultural Statistics of Balochistan 1994-95, there were 1,785 tube wells in the former Kalat district, out of these 1,752 were privately owned and 33 were government controlled. Most of the tube wells were electric generated (1,489). Only 296 were diesel fuelled.

Out of 264, 258 tractors were privately owned and 6 were owned by the government. There were 70 threshers in Mastung valley, of which 67 were privately owned and the remaining 3 were under government ownership.

There is no data specially on the use and ownership of tractors and tube wells in Mastung.

In Mastung it is possible to hire a tractor, usually on a per hour basis. In some cases and in some areas the amount to be paid is determined by the number of hectares to be worked on.

Fertilisers are supplied through a network. The retailer gets his supplies from the wholesaler, who is normally the distributor within the district. Certified seeds are usually distributed by the Agriculture Department of the district. Ordinary seeds are available from local shops. According to the Development Statistics of Balochistan 1994-95, consumption of chemical fertiliser in Mastung district during 1993-94 and 1994-95 was 1,700 and 1,800 tonnes respectively. The data prior to these years are not available.

The district produces large quantities of fruits and vegetables. Marketing of fruits and vegetables is not restricted to the province, but in many cases crosses the provincial boundaries. It is estimated that 60 to 70% of the fruit production is marketed and consumed in other provinces. The market infrastructure, regulation mechanisms and marketing costs directly affect the prices received by the growers. There are numerous intermediaries operating at various stages of marketing. It is imperative to look at agricultural marketing in the national perspective. Marketing of all agriculture produce is in the hands of the private sector, while government is only involved in regulation and development functions.

The process of marketing of fruits starts from the time when the orchard is sold to the pre-harvest contractor at blossom. He manages the orchard till harvest. For fruit cultivation a dominant role is played by the commission agent who works like a bank providing credit to farmers, pre-harvest contractors and wholesalers. By providing credit, he gets a guarantee that the produce will be marketed through him.

Agricultural prices are a key element in the decision making process of many institutions. Government agencies assess the welfare of both producers and consumers, and plan price support programs accordingly. Farmers need good information on prices to make optimum management decisions and to plan their crop marketing. The Agricultural Price Commission (APC) gives recommendations for support prices for agricultural commodities. The main purpose is to safeguard the interest of the farmer. In reality the consumer and producer prices are determined through the market mechanism. The main reason of variation between APC and market prices is that prices fixed by APC do not even reflect the marginal costs of the crop. PASSCO is responsible for buying agricultural crops from the farmers at the rates fixed by APC, but as in reality prices for crops are higher than the prices set by APC, the role of PASSCO is negligible.

Change in level of agricultural incomes cannot be worked out without estimating costs of production for specific crops. District level data is not available for this purpose. However, agricultural prices of almost all the crops have increased over time. Yield per hectare and total production of crops have also increased. The costs of agricultural inputs such as fertiliser, water etc. have gone up as well. However, the remunerative price relationship between input and output has remained in favour of farmers. Therefore it can be concluded that agricultural income has increased. Recently, government has substantially increased the procurement prices of certain agricultural commodities and reduced the prices of agriculture inputs like fertiliser. This will further increase the profit margin and income of farmers.

Irrigated Agriculture

Orchard in the Spring

15. Department of Agricultural

There are three important functions of the Agriculture Department at district level: agricultural research, agricultural engineering and agricultural extension. The objective of agricultural extension is to disseminate research results. The Department also provides subsidised seeds and its extension field staff introduces the application of new technologies (optimum use of water, NPK, seeds etc.) to the farmers. The Department, in collaboration with and with financial assistance from donor agencies, is also working on specific projects in the district. Under the On Farm Water Management (OFWM) programme water tanks and channels are constructed. Three quarters of the cost is paid by the agency and one quarter is borne by the farmers. Another example is the Precision Land Levelling (PLL) project.

In the district various institutions are involved in providing inputs and services to the agricultural sector. The provincial government is playing a dominant role in the provision of agricultural services such as agricultural